Economics · Literature

Research papers on The gig economy

Recent and highly-cited academic work on the gig economy, gathered from Semantic Scholar, CrossRef and OpenAlex.

1. Good Gig, Bad Gig: Autonomy and Algorithmic Control in the Global Gig Economy

   Alex J. Wood, Mark Graham, Vili Lehdonvirta, et al. · 2018 · Work Employment and Society · 2,179 citations

   This article evaluates the job quality of work in the remote gig economy. Such work consists of the remote provision of a wide variety of digital services mediated by online labour platforms. Focusing on workers in Southeast Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, the article draws on semi-structured interviews in six countries ( N = 107) and a cross-regional survey ( N = 679) to detail the manner in which remote gig work is shaped by platform-based algorithmic control. Despite varying country contexts and types of work, we show that algorithmic control is central to the operation of online labour platforms. Algorithmic management techniques tend to offer workers high levels of flexibility, autonomy, t

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2. The Gig Economy and Contingent Work

   Molly Tran, Rosemary Kelly Sokas · 2017 · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · 202 citations

   The gig economy describes forms of contingent work arrangements that require digital platforms, representing an evolution in contingent work, both in moving up the educational scale and in increased visibility. It has engaged many workers who are highly educated and might previously have been in traditional employer–employee relationships, and appears to increase their vulnerability to wage theft, independent contractor misclassification, job insecurity, and lack of occupational health protections. As occupational health physicians, our need to develop, evaluate, and implement interventions to address the needs of workers in non-traditional employment relationships is growing. BACKGROUND Non

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3. Hustle and Gig: Struggling and Surviving in the Sharing Economy

   Michael Dunn · 2019 · Social Forces · 143 citations

   We know that contemporary workers face changes in the workplace driven by rapid increased in technical efficiencies (Gomes 2019), decreased expectations of loyalty between workers and employers (Sweet and Meiksins 2015), and weakened policies and rules governing the workplace and worker rights (Kalleberg 2015). Together, these forces are re-shaping the ways in which people are pursuing work; altering the ways they think about employment and charting a path of greater precarity. Against this backdrop, the rapid evolution of information and communication technologies (ICTs) are playing central roles. For example, advancements in connectivity (e.g., internet infrastructure and access), software

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4. Insurance and the gig economy: Analyzing Chinese platform workers' participation in work-related injury insurance.

   Xin-Yue Wu, Jiajia Wang, Jie Jiang · 2025 · Acta psychologica · 11 citations

   Countries support and regulate the development of new forms of employment, namely platform employment, and propose to strengthen the protection of the rights and interests of platform workers. However, social insurance, especially work-related injury insurance, has always been absent. This study selected the 2021 survey data sample of the Chinese Social Quality Data Archive (CSS) to analyze the factors affecting the willingness of Chinese platform workers to participate in work-related injury insurance. It shows that the willingness of platform workers to purchase work-related injury insurance is subject to factors such as educational level, labor contracts, government-provided medical insur

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5. The Ambiguity of Employment Relationship in Indonesia's Gig Economy: A Study of Online Motorcycle Taxi Drivers

   M. Muhyiddin, Nur Siti Annazah, Henriko Henriko Tobing, et al. · 2024 · Jurnal Ketenagakerjaan · 9 citations

   The rise of the gig economy in Indonesia, driven by digital platforms such as Gojek and Grab, has created significant employment opportunities through online motorcycle taxis (ojek online). However, the employment relationship between digital platforms and online motorcycle taxi drivers remains ambiguous. Currently, no explicit regulation defines the status of gig workers within Indonesia's legal framework. The absence of recognition as formal employees leaves these workers in precarious conditions, devoid of social security, minimum wage guarantees, and collective bargaining rights. This policy paper reviews existing regulations, evaluates international approaches, and identifies the benefi

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6. The GIG economy and its effects on the labor market

   Jinyoung Hwang · 2024 · International Journal of Science and Research Archive · 5 citations

   The objective of this study is to enhance comprehension of the gig economy, its ramifications, and its significance for labor market dynamics and public policy. This research offers practical insights for different stakeholders, such as politicians, enterprises, and workers, in effectively addressing the obstacles and capitalizing on the opportunities posed by the gig economy, utilizing a rigorous quantitative analysis approach. The study employs a quantitative research design, which entails the collection and analysis of numerical data to derive significant insights regarding the influence of the gig economy on the labor market. The chosen research design is in accordance with the requireme

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7. The Rise of Gig Economies: How Freelancing is Reshaping Labor Markets

   Makhmanazarov Javokhir, Issimova Ainura, Samatov Tekhron, et al. · 2025 · Asian Journal of Economics, Business and Accounting · 3 citations

   The gig economy, characterized by short-term, flexible jobs facilitated by digital platforms, has rapidly transformed labor markets worldwide. While this shift offers workers greater autonomy and access to diverse income opportunities, it also raises concerns about job security, benefits, and labor rights. Despite growing attention, significant research gaps remain regarding the long-term socioeconomic impacts of gig work, particularly in differentiating between skilled freelancing and low-wage platform labor.  This study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative analysis of labor market data from OECD countries (2015–2023) with qualitative interviews of 50 gig workers across

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8. THE GIG ECONOMY AND ITS IMPACTS ON INDIAN BUSINESS AND LABOR MARKETS

   D. Singh, Binod Pratap Singh · 2024 · ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing Arts · 2 citations

   The gig economy has revolutionized business practices and labor markets around the world and is one of the fastest-growing markets in India. Composed of short-term, flexible, and platform-driven job relations, the gig economy opens up enormous potential for commercial extension but also poses fundamental questions about labor rights and social security. The above points are confirmed by our analysis of secondary data from government reports, policy papers, and academic research, with a specific focus on what trends in the “gig economy” entail for Indian commerce and labor markets.It is clear from the analysis that gig platforms (e.g., Ola, Uber, Swiggy, Zomato, and freelance IT services) hav

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9. DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AND WORKING CONDITIONS: A CASE STUDY OF RIDE-HAILING DRIVERS IN THE GIG ECONOMY

   Shalsabilla Shafira, R. Dalimunthe, R. H. Harahap · 2024 · International Conference of Business and Social Sciences · 2 citations

   Companies are facing new challenges due to digital developments. Digital transformation is changing the way companies operate and creating a new economic model, namely the gig economy. Ride-hailing platforms like Go-jek and Grab offer work flexibility for drivers, but often accompanied by uncertainty and vulnerability. This research uses qualitative methods with in-depth interviews with online motorcycle taxi drivers to understand how the platform controls their work. The findings show that despite the freedom to choose working hours, drivers are often forced to work longer to meet income and bonus targets. The platform uses customer rating systems and GPS technology to monitor drivers, addi

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10. Beyond Conventional Contract: Adapting Ijarah Principles to Digital Freelance Platform in Indonesia’s Gig Economy

    Ghina Mufidah, Andi Tenri Mula Uforio, Andi Agung Mallongi, et al. · 2026 · International Journal of Islamic Business and Economics (IJIBEC) · 2 citations

    This study aims to analyze the transformation of the ijarah contract within the context of digital freelance platforms, develop a sharia-based framework for a sustainable digital work ecosystem, and formulate an implementation model of ijarah principles that supports sustainable development. The growth of digital freelance workers in Indonesia reached 46.47 million in 2023. However, this has not been accompanied by adequate protection of workers' rights, as labor regulations such as Law Number 13 of 2003 and the Job Creation Law Number 11 of 2020 have not specifically regulated digital employment contract mechanisms. The research method employs a Systematic Literature Review using the PRISMA

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11. OPTIONS FOR REGULATING LABOR IN THE GIG ECONOMY: WHAT ARE THEY?

    Dedi Supriadi, Saprizon Saprizon, Aslina Putri, et al. · 2025 · International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Literature · 1 citations

    Traditional labor regulations and employment standards are complicated by the features of paid work associated with digital platform businesses, such as taxi, delivery, and maintenance roles. This article evaluates the scope of this. The types of employment in Indonesia and their primary attributes subsequently examine the relevance of current employment regulations to these gig jobs, referencing Australian and international legislation and jurisprudence. Significant ambiguity exists over the extent of conventional legislation, minimum requirements, and remedies in the domain of irregular digitally mediated employment. Regulators and legislators should evaluate methods to enhance and broaden

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12. Regulating Gig Work and Labor Protections in the Age of Platforms

    Junki Utsumi, Katsuro Mizusawa, Yousuke Tachibana, et al. · 2025 · International Journal of Humanities Management and Social Science (IJ-HuMaSS) · 1 citations

    Japan’s rapid digital transformation has given rise to an expanding platform-based labor force in major urban centers such as Tokyo and Osaka. This study investigates how regulatory frameworks in Japan are responding to the rise of platform labor, focusing on the legal ambiguity, social protection gaps, and labor rights associated with gig economy work. While digital platforms promote flexibility and convenience, they also raise concerns over worker precarity, income instability, and exclusion from formal social safety nets. Using a descriptive qualitative methodology, this research analyzes recent legislative developments, policy debates, and case studies from delivery app workers, freelanc

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13. The Disruption of Labor Law in the Platform Economy: Towards a Normative Reconfiguration

    H. Hermanto, P. Hendriks, Sophie Vermeer · 2025 · Rechtsnormen: Journal of Law · 1 citations

    Background. The emergence of the platform economy—characterized by gig work, algorithmic management, and digital intermediation—has profoundly challenged traditional labor law frameworks. Conventional legal categories such as “employee” and “employer” often fail to capture the complexity of work relationships within platform-based environments. As a result, workers engaged in ride-sharing, food delivery, and other digital services are frequently excluded from fundamental labor protections, including minimum wage, social security, and collective bargaining rights. Purpose. This study aims to critically examine how platform-mediated work disrupts existing labor law norms and to propose a norma

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14. Perlindungan Hukum Terhadap Hak-Hak Pekerja Lepas Dalam Perkembangan Gig Economy di Indonesia

    Komang Ayu Dona Santi Aryani · 2026 · Journal of Legal, Political, and Humanistic Inquiry · 1 citations

    This rapid expansion of the gig economy in Indonesia has fundamentally transformed employment relations and raised critical legal issues concerning the protection of freelance workers’ rights. Digital platform-based work offers flexibility and efficiency, yet it simultaneously creates legal uncertainty due to the absence of clear employment status and adequate labor protections. Existing labor regulations, particularly Law Number 13 of 2003 on Manpower and Law Number 11 of 2020 on Job Creation, remain largely oriented toward traditional employment relationships and have not fully accommodated the unique characteristics of gig work. As a result, freelance workers often face unequal contractua

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15. Labor Rights in the Era of the Gig Economy: Regulatory Challenges and Legal Protection in Indonesia

    Melti Wulandari, Susanto, E. Sofwan · 2026 · Journal of Legal and Cultural Analytics

    The rapid growth of the gig economy has transformed labor relations in Indonesia through digital platform-based work arrangements. While gig work offers flexibility and employment opportunities, it also creates legal uncertainty regarding workers’ status and limits access to fundamental labor protections. This study aims to analyze the legal status of gig workers within Indonesia’s labor law system and identify regulatory challenges in ensuring fair legal protection. The research employs a normative legal method using statutory, conceptual, and comparative approaches supported by primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials. The findings reveal that existing labor regulations remain orie

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16. The Legal Status of Gig Economy Workers in Indonesia's Digital Platform Industry (2022-2025)

    Adi Pratomo Kusuma Wardhana, Rasji Rasji · 2025 · Indonesian Journal of Law and Economics Review

    General Background: The rapid expansion of Indonesia’s digital economy during 2022–2025 has intensified the reliance on gig-based labor across transportation, logistics, and on-demand services. Specific Background: Despite their substantial contribution, gig workers’ legal standing remains ambiguous because platform companies categorize them as “partners” while exercising algorithmic control resembling conventional employment. Knowledge Gap: Existing Indonesian labor regulations have not adapted to digital platform work, leaving uncertainty regarding worker rights, social protection, and dispute-resolution mechanisms. Aims: This study analyzes the legal status of gig workers in Indonesia’s p

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17. The Gig Economy and Labor Protection in China: Evidence from Food Delivery Platforms

    Wei Li, Yuchen Liu, Yin-shi Sun · 2025 · Journal of World Economy

    The gig economy in China has experienced exponential growth, particularly within the food delivery sector, with platforms like Meituan, Ele.me, and Didi becoming dominant players in the labor market. However, this growth has also raised significant concerns about labor protection and workers’ rights. This paper explores the challenges and policy implications surrounding labor governance in China’s platform economy, focusing on the food delivery sector. It examines the economic drivers behind the expansion of gig work, including demand-side factors like urban consumption and technology adoption, as well as supply-side dynamics such as labor surplus and migration. The study highlights key labo

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18. Potential impact of the EU Platform Work Directive on AI labelers

    Mariia Lesina · 2025 · AI Policy Exchange Forum

    The gig economy has revolutionized labor markets, introducing high flexibility while simultaneously raising critical concerns about workers’ rights and protections. Across the European Union (EU), 3% of people aged 15-64 rely on digital platforms to access employment, yet many remain trapped in a legal grey zone, lacking social security, job stability, and transparency in how their labor is managed (Eurostat 2024). While the attention has been largely drawn to the impact of AI algorithms on the workflows of such gig workers, most notably drivers or delivery people, one group has been largely overlooked – the invisible workforce behind AI. These workers perform essential tasks such as data ta

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19. The Gig Economy in India: Threats and Implications for Regular Employment in the Context of the 2025 Labour Act Reforms

    Neelam Sharma · 2025 · International Journal of Web of Multidisciplinary Studies

    The rapid growth of the gig economy in India has transformed the nature of work, employment relations, and labour protection. While gig platforms have increased opportunities for flexible and technologically advanced work, they have also raised questions about the future of traditional employment. This paper analyses the threats posed by gig work to regular jobs in India, examining issues of job security, income stability, labour rights, and social protection. The study further evaluates the transformative impact of the four new labour codes, which come into effect on November 21, 2025, particularly the provisions related to gig and platform workers under the Social Security Code, 2020. Thro

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20. A Regulatory Time Bomb: Can Singapore’s Model Rescue Indonesia’s Gig Economy?

    Nindry Sulistya Widiastiani · 2025 · Jurnal Dinamika Hukum

    Platform workers who work through digital applications such as online transportation and delivery services are growing in Indonesia, but their legal status is still unclear. The incompatibility between the platform's work model and conventional labor regulations results in platform workers not receiving legal protection, social security, or recognition of formal employment relationships. This article examines these problems using normative legal research methods and comparative approaches by comparing the Indonesian legal system with Singapore's policies through the Platform Workers Act 2024. The legal materials include laws and regulations, jurisprudence, and related literature. The study r

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21. Exploration of the Gig Economy Market, Challenges and Countermeasures

    E. Shang · 2024 · Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences

    The purpose of this paper is to deeply explore the development trend of the new gig economy based on the digital technology platform as a bridge at a time when Internet technology is changing rapidly and the pace of market change is accelerating. Through a comprehensive survey of the gig economy market, this paper find that although the rise of this economic model has brought unprecedented vitality and flexibility to the labor market, it has also caused a series of profound changes and severe challenges, such as the increase of wage and income uncertainty and the insufficient coverage of the social security system. In the face of these complex problems, it is urgent for the government and en

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22. THE LABOR MARKET INTEGRATION OF BRAZILIANS IN THE GIG ECONOMY IN PORTUGAL:

    Fabrício Pelloso Piurcosky, Sheldon William Silva, Pedro dos Santos Portugal Júnior, et al. · 2026 · Perspectivas Contemporâneas

    The rise of the gig economy is reshaping labor relations globally, and in Portugal, this phenomenon is intertwined with the growing flow of Brazilian migrants. This study aims to analyze the labor market insertion of Brazilian immigrants in the gig economy in Portugal and the gender, race, generation, and educational markers of this movement. The research, descriptive and exploratory in nature, is based on a bibliographic and documentary survey, using articles indexed in the SciELO and Scopus databases, complemented by official data from AIMA, PORDATA, and EUROSTAT. The results reveal that the gig economy, although offering an entry point into the labor market, frequently translates into pre

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23. Critical Analysis of Worker's Rights and Protection in the Gig Economy in Pakistan

    Advocate Khadija Shoukat · 2026 · Journal of International Law & Human Rights

    The gig economy has revolutionized the employment landscape globally, introducing flexible, task-based work managed via digital platforms. In Pakistan, this sector has expanded exponentially across ride-hailing, food delivery, and digital freelancing. However, this growth has exposed significant regulatory deficits. This research paper critically evaluates the existing legal framework governing gig workers in Pakistan and examines the vulnerabilities stemming from ambiguous employment classifications, lack of social security, and non-existent dispute resolution mechanisms. Employing a mixed-methods doctrinal and empirical assessment, this paper highlights how traditional labor statutes fail

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24. LEGAL PROTECTION IN INDONESIA OF ONLINE RIDE-HAILING DRIVERS AND DIGITAL FREELANCERS IN THE GIG ECONOMY ERA

    Indra Wijaya, Thi Kim Oanh Nguyen · 2026 · EQUALEGUM International Law Journal

    Background. Digital economy has fundamentally transformed labor relations worldwide. In Indonesia, digital platform-based work has become an increasingly important source of employment, particularly for online ride-hailing drivers, delivery couriers, and freelance digital workers. While digital platforms offer flexibility, they also generate significant legal challenges concerning employment status, social protection, occupational safety, income security, and collective labor rights. Most platform companies classify workers as independent partners rather than employees, thereby excluding them from labor protections traditionally afforded under employment law. This study examines the adequacy

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